Tobacco: the Perfect Compliment to Capitalism and the Protestant Work Ethic

 I am having thoughts on the history of mild intoxicants (http://www.amazon.com/Tastes-Paradise-History-Stimulants-Intoxicants/dp/067974438X) and they're continually returning to a certain recurring motif: did certain mild intoxicants, coffee and tobacco, fundamentally drive humans as they developed capitalism and the Protestant work ethic, and therefore give rise to the Western society as we know it today? The question is definitely pertinent. The answer, however, is not as cut-and-dry as a yes or no. The development of human thought and action was a multidimensional process; therefore no one thing deserves credit. However, I am going to argue that these substances proved the perfect compliment, thereby enabling a shift in possibilities, a shift that did indeed become crucial to the process.

I want to use this post to argue tobacco’s role in the process. I will mention coffee where pertinent, but it will not be a focal point.

Europe received tobacco with open arms. An export from America, tobacco was as novel as a product could be at the time. Its unorthodox mode of consumption left people at a loss for words as to how to appropriately describe the act of consuming tobacco. This 1627 quote from Johann Joachim von Rusdorff does a decent job of expressing the sentiment of the day, “I cannot help but devote a few words to criticizing that new, astonishing fashion that came to our Europe some years ago from America, and which might be called a fog-drinking bout which outdoes all other passions for indulgence in drink, old or new.” Fog-drinking was, finally, aptly deemed smoking later in the 17th century. The novelty that was smoking naturally gave rapid rise to commercialization of the product. Smoking a pipe quickly became a past time focused on easing the mind and calming oneself; it was the perfect combination of motoricity, psychology, and pharmacology. This is the first important role tobacco played in the westernization process. Like coffee, tobacco allowed the individual to refocus, and then move forward efficiently, ideally now able to do more work than was previously possible without the drug. Tobacco’s differences from coffee in this respect should also be noted. Caffeine acted to stimulate the mind and provide the individual with renewed energy to complete the task-at-hand; nicotine, on the other hand, calmed and collected the individual’s wits, putting them into a level-headed state of mind, also making it easier to move forward with the task at hand. They both achieved similar ends, yet worked in different ways.

Championed as an idyllic drug for students, tobacco provided means to achieving a contemplative mind. The popularity of the drugs denoted a shift in emphasis from the work of the physical world to the labors of the mind. Coffee shops and smoking parlors were academic gathering places. With the ever increasing speed of everyday life, coffee and tobacco became seen as drugs that not only allowed people to keep up, but enabled them to set the pace. The Protestant work ethic developed hand-in-hand with these substances. People could now work harder and longer than they previously thought possible, all the while remaining unintoxicated (obviously only if they weren’t drinking), and in the case of smoking, less burdened with erotic passions and desires, according to the times. Weakened sexual passion was seen by Protestants as a very positive side effect of smoking tobacco. The medicine of the times also viewed tobacco very favorably; it got rid of excess mucus, “[made] you lean,” and kept you level-headed.

The progressive development of tobacco as a smoking vehicle, as well as the female smoking movement, both mirror the westernized sentiment well. An increase in the speed of everyday life also saw a correlative decrease in the size of, and therefore smoking time, associated with smoking vehicles. Once upon a time it took an hour to properly smoke a pipe. Then came the cigar. Seen as light and nimble at its introduction into the market, the cigar could be smoked in thirty minutes or less and required no packing. Just cut and light. Naturally, the cigarette showed up. Now we had a product that could be fully consumed in a matter of minutes and came packaged in boxes containing multiples. People initially exchanged the cigarettes from the commercial box to a more personal case. However, this soon became passé, and people smoked them straight from the box. The cigarette helped facilitate the movement for women to smoke. The small, thin appearance of a cigarette seemed feminine, and after a surge with some initial pushback, became appropriate and commonplace for women to smoke.

The ability to work harder and longer, the decrease in sexual passion, the focused mind, the vast commercialization quickly spreading worldwide, and the progressive female smoking movement all serve as evidence that tobacco quickly became the perfect complement to the human temperament in the development of the western identity and establishment of the Protestant work ethic.

"The Non-Definitive Guide to Stuff Duke People Like"

Towerview Magazine put out a small section in their latest issue called, "Stuff Duke People Like."  However, they only happened to name 9 things.  I searched online to see if they'd in fact made a longer list but didn't publish it.  Alas, my search was to no avail.  

I decided to take it into my own hands.  Below are the first 30 things on my list of Stuff Duke People Like.  Leave a comment if you have some more.    

1.  Walking to or from the gym.

2.  Alcohol on food points.

3.  Casually Blacking Out.

4.  Standing in line in von der Hayden (Trinity students).

5.  Standing in line at Twinnie’s (Pratt students).

6.  Checking yourself out in the Bryan Center mirrors.

7.  Skipping basketball games to do homework.

8.  Driving through the wooden parking gates.

9.  Pretending you were sweet in high school.

10. Those blue sliding things on the Plaza.

11. Acting stressed out. 

12. Sending out facebook event invitations.

13. RSVP’ing “Maybe” to said facebook events.

14. Loop cookies.

15. LoYo.

16. Freakonomics.

17. Going to information sessions.

18. Dan Ariely.

19. Not attending free world-class speaking events.

20. Brodhead’s Voice.

21. FLEX donations.

22. Personal Checks.

23. @ndotsmitty.

24. Transient outrage over the latest Duke scandal.

25. Busch Light.

26. WaDuke Bar in April.

27.  Coach K.

28.  3am Cookout.

29. Shooter's.

30. Winning.  

How to find the Inverse of a Matrix

We are only going to focus on the 2x2 Matrix in this exercise.

As a rule of thumb, A*A^-1 = I, where A^-1 is the inverse of matrix A, and I is the identity matrix.

For a  matrix

the matrix inverse is

		.

  The Matlab code for this is again quite straightforward.  For matrix A,

a = inv(A) 

How to find the Determinant of a Matrix

First let's look at a 2x2 matrix.  This is the easiest to do.

How did we do this?  Well, first step is to multiply the two values on the main diagonal, 1 x 4 = 4.  Then from that value we subtract the product of the other two values, in this case that means, 4 - (2x3) = -2.  Easy enough.

  

Now let's make it a tad more complicated and take the determinant of a 3x3 matrix.    

It's not too bad, you just have to keep your terms straight and the calculation should come out fine.  

Let's name the above 3x3 matrix A.  To find |A| in Matlab all you do is:

d = det(A)

Roots

The word roots has many meanings.  Today I'd like to look at mathematical roots.

What are roots?
Roots are values or variables that cause a function to equal zero.  For example, in the equation, y(x)=(x+2)(x-4), x=-2 and x=4 are roots of the function y(x) because these values make the function evaluate to zero.

Graphically, real roots can be found on plots as the x values where y is equal to zero.  When searching for a root in a program such as Matlab, you'll most likely need to make a reasonable estimate as to where the root lies.  You can do this by plotting the function first then eye-balling.  A valid bracket on the root would span the root. The sign of the function is different at the lower and upper side of the bracket.  Keep in mind that you're graphics may contain multiple roots.  For continuous functions, they'll contain at least one root.

Repeated roots in even numbers will cause the function to reach zero, but not cross the zero axis.  To find repeated roots, methods depending on bracketing cannot be used since the function does not change signs at the location of the root.

We can find the roots of a function several ways.  One, of course, is to do it by hand.  Another is to use a couple core Matlab commands to do it for you.

Let's look at what both entail.  First, by hand...

One method to finding roots by hand is bisection.
Here are the steps:
1.  Start with a bracket (this is the range of x values where the sign of the function changes from one side to the other).
2.  Evaluate the function at the end points.
3.  Find the midpoint and evaluate the function at the midpoint.
4.  Determine where the function changes sign (between the lower bracket and the midpoint or between the midpoint and the upper bracket).
5.  Reassign the lower or upper bracket to the midpoint value so that the new bracket values still bracket the point where the function changes sign.
6.  Continue to evaluate the midpoint and reassign brackets until the roots have been found to the desired accuracy.
--For this method to work, you need to be able to determine a solid starting bracket.  It is also useful to be able to figure the x-tolerance (0.5*(xr-xl)) and the f-tolerance (|f(xm)|).

Another very useful method to finding roots by hand is the Newton-Raphson Method.
This method evaluates the derivative of a function at the estimate of the root, then follows a tangent line to the x-axis.
Here are the steps:
1.  If xk is the current estimate of the root, and xk+1 is the next estimate of the root, the next estimate is found using the following equation (derived by finding where the slope crosses zero):

xk+1=xk-[f(xk)/f'(xk)]

2.  Start with a guess for the root.  

3.  Evaluate the function at the guess and check to see if accuracy has been reached -- if so, stop.  If not, continue through to the next guess. 

4.  Calculate the next estimate of the root using the above equation.  

5.  Determine if the f-tolerance, x-tolerance, or max number of guesses has been reached.  If so, stop.  If not, repeat.  

-- This is a quicker method of finding the roots than bisection.  If you set everything up in a nice chart, tracking every new guess and evaluation becomes much easier.  You can find pretty complex roots using this method.  And instead of a bracketed guess, you need only make one initial estimate of the root.  

x-tolerance for N-RM is (|x(N)-x(N+1)|) and the f-tolerance is (|f(x(N))|).

And what about the built-in Matlab functions?  

1.  roots function. 

This function is useful in that it can find all of the roots, even the imaginary ones.  Let's go through an example of how to use this function find the roots of the polynomial x^3-6x^2-72x-27.

First, you need to represent it in a way Matlab can read it.  Take the coefficients and do this:

P=[1 -6 -72 -27]

The roots will be returned in a column vector by:

R = roots(P)

R =

    12.1229
    -5.7345
    -0.3884

  

2.  fzero function. 

This function can be used to find the root of a continuous function of one variable. It's pretty versatile, so let's look at a couple examples.  These can be found on the Mathworks site directly.  

Example 1

Calculate π by finding the zero of the sine function near 3.

x = fzero(@sin,3)
x =
    3.1416

Example 2

To find the zero of cosine between 1 and 2

x = fzero(@cos,[1 2])
x =
    1.5708

Note that cos(1) and cos(2) differ in sign.

Example 3

To find a zero of the function f(x) = x³ – 2x – 5, write an anonymous function f:

f = @(x)x.^3-2*x-5;

Then find the zero near 2:

z = fzero(f,2)
z =
    2.0946

Because this function is a polynomial, the statement roots([1 0 -2 -5]) finds the same real zero, and a complex conjugate pair of zeros.

2.0946
   -1.0473 + 1.1359i
   -1.0473 - 1.1359i

*Many thanks to Dr. G in Duke University's Pratt School of Engineering for the information contributing to this post.   

Understanding Basic Wireless Concepts

One of the many new blog mini-series I will be rolling out in the next month or two concerns wireless technology and networks.  It is something I am becoming more and more interested in for several reasons.  First, wireless is so incredibly relevant to our time that my intellectual curiosity has naturally led me to want to understand it.  Second, a couple of friends and I have recently noticed a large gap in the space, a technology that needs to be available, yet is not.  In order to properly bring this new technology into being, we need first understand what it is we will be working with.

So for the next few months, a series of posts will be entirely devoted to learning and teaching the basic concepts in wireless technology, from WiFi to cellular networks, from radio & television to the internet, and everything in between.

So stay tuned into Volumnomics to learn some more useful, relevant knowledge about the world around you.

This post will begin with a basic look into the essential components and concepts underlying wireless networks.

First let's look at data.  What kind of data can be sent wirelessly?  Anything really -- from radio and TV signals, to computer data, to even voices and sound bytes.  Radio wave piggybacking gets the information from point A to B.  I'll discuss the Electromagnetic Spectrum in further detail in another post soon.

So how exactly does the information piggyback onto the radio waves?  Well, to do this, we rely on a process called modulation.  We use a modulator to do this.  Naturally, this implies another process, on the receiving end, aptly named demodulation -- a crucial process for extracting the information after it is sent.

Information-piggybacked RF (radio frequency) waves are sent via transmitters and are received by, you guessed it, receivers.  

Cell technology works around the concept of the cell.  Cells are geographic areas divided into separate units. Cell phone communication begins within the cell where the phone resides.  If two cell phones are communicating within the same cell, no long-distance communication need take place.  However, longer distance communication requires more tools.

Every cell has a base station.  This base station acts as a transmitter, forwarding information from the cell phone to other transmitting base stations for as long as the information needs to travel.  The process of moving from cell to cell in this manner is commonly referred to as handoff.

Next post, we'll take a deeper look at the Electromagnetic Spectrum.  What is it exactly?  And why is it so incredibly relevant to every aspect of our lives?  

Is A College Degree Still Worth It?

Just read a good article in Bloomberg Businessweek, looking at this issue.  Chris Farrell does a nice job of examining the arguments.  Ultimately, his stance is for the  degree.  What do you think?

Click HERE to read the article.  

Revenge of the Glia

Glial cells... the most common type of cell in the nervous system.

Glia comes from the Greek word for glue.  Glial cells act as nervous system adhesives, keeping everything together and working properly.  They are non-excitable cells, which obviously means they do not produce action potentials.  This, in my opinion, is why neurons get all the attention, even though glial cells outnumber nerve cells many magnitudes over.

You'll find several types of Glia in the CNS.
1.  Oligodendrocytes (Schwann Cells in the PNS) act to sheath axons with myelin.
2.  Microglia, the guardians of the brain, are activated during an infection and after damage.  They are kind of like the janitors, cleaning up the mess.
3.  Astrocytes are the most common glial cells.  If I remember correctly, they make up 90% of all glial cells.

* I mentioned Schwann Cells briefly.  They can be myelinating or non-myelinating.  The non-myelinating type sits around the NMJ, providing necessary trophic support, regulating the function of the synapse.

Microglia:

These guys are the resident immune cells.  They are immediately activated post-injury, and are therefore hyperactive during neurodegenerative disorders.  Researchers think they may play a role in development as well.

Oligodendrocytes:

These are the myelinating cells.  They originate from the same stem cells as astrocytes and are implicated in demyelinating diseases such as MS.  Myelin proteins are known inhibitors of axon regeneration.

Astrocytes:


Astrocytes allow us to have a glialcentric view of the nervous system as well as a neurocentric one.  What do astrocytes do during neural development, exactly?  Just a few of the findings are as follows:
* RGCs can be cultured in the absence and presence of glia
* Glia increase synaptic activity
* Soluble signals released by astrocytes induce an increase in synapse numbers on RGCs
*Purified thrombospondin is sufficient to increase synapse numbers to the ACM levels
* TSP 1 and 2 expression is developmentally regulated.

So what are Thrombospondins?
They are proteins with antiangiogenic (inhibits the growth of new blood vessels) abilities.  The acronym is TSP.  TSP 1 and 2 are expressed by developing astrocytes, with TSP4 being expressed at the NMJ.  They regulate cell attachment, the cytoskeleton, migration, and of course angiogenesis.

But most importantly, they are synaptogenic, meaning they induce synapse formation.  Synaptogenic function is mediated through an EGF-like domain.  The drug Gabapentin specifically blocks synapse formation induced by TSP, by the way.  Drugs like this (Neurontin and Lyrica) are used to treat chronic pain and epilepsy, but their actual mechanism of action is unknown.  I'm pretty sure they were developed with the intention of blocking the Ca2+ channel subunit that acts as the receptor for Gabapentin & Pregabalin (*note the GABA theme here) but didn't end up doing the specific molecular action that the scientists initially desired (isn't this how basically every drug is developed, as a failure turned multi-billion dollar miracle pill?  read...Viagra).